leo_parser/parser/

expression.rs

// Copyright (C) 2019-2025 Provable Inc.
// This file is part of the Leo library.

// The Leo library is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
// it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
// the Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or
// (at your option) any later version.

// The Leo library is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
// but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
// MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the
// GNU General Public License for more details.

// You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
// along with the Leo library. If not, see <https://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.

use super::*;
use leo_errors::{ParserError, Result};

use leo_span::sym;
use snarkvm::console::{account::Address, network::Network};

const INT_TYPES: &[Token] = &[
    Token::I8,
    Token::I16,
    Token::I32,
    Token::I64,
    Token::I128,
    Token::U8,
    Token::U16,
    Token::U32,
    Token::U64,
    Token::U128,
    Token::Field,
    Token::Group,
    Token::Scalar,
];

impl<N: Network> ParserContext<'_, N> {
    /// Returns an [`Expression`] AST node if the next token is an expression.
    /// Includes struct init expressions.
    pub(crate) fn parse_expression(&mut self) -> Result<Expression> {
        // Store current parser state.
        let prior_fuzzy_state = self.disallow_struct_construction;

        // Allow struct init expressions.
        self.disallow_struct_construction = false;

        // Parse expression.
        let result = self.parse_conditional_expression();

        // Restore prior parser state.
        self.disallow_struct_construction = prior_fuzzy_state;

        result
    }

    /// Returns an [`Expression`] AST node if the next tokens represent
    /// a ternary expression. May or may not include struct init expressions.
    ///
    /// Otherwise, tries to parse the next token using [`parse_boolean_or_expression`].
    pub(super) fn parse_conditional_expression(&mut self) -> Result<Expression> {
        // Try to parse the next expression. Try BinaryOperation::Or.
        let mut expr = self.parse_boolean_or_expression()?;

        // Parse the rest of the ternary expression.
        if self.eat(&Token::Question) {
            let if_true = self.parse_expression()?;
            self.expect(&Token::Colon)?;
            let if_false = self.parse_expression()?;
            expr = Expression::Ternary(TernaryExpression {
                span: expr.span() + if_false.span(),
                condition: Box::new(expr),
                if_true: Box::new(if_true),
                if_false: Box::new(if_false),
                id: self.node_builder.next_id(),
            });
        }
        Ok(expr)
    }

    /// Constructs a binary expression `left op right`.
    fn bin_expr(node_builder: &NodeBuilder, left: Expression, right: Expression, op: BinaryOperation) -> Expression {
        Expression::Binary(BinaryExpression {
            span: left.span() + right.span(),
            op,
            left: Box::new(left),
            right: Box::new(right),
            id: node_builder.next_id(),
        })
    }

    /// Parses a left-associative binary expression `<left> token <right>` using `f` for left/right.
    /// The `token` is translated to `op` in the AST.
    fn parse_bin_expr(
        &mut self,
        tokens: &[Token],
        mut f: impl FnMut(&mut Self) -> Result<Expression>,
    ) -> Result<Expression> {
        let mut expr = f(self)?;
        while let Some(op) = self.eat_bin_op(tokens) {
            expr = Self::bin_expr(self.node_builder, expr, f(self)?, op);
        }
        Ok(expr)
    }

    /// Returns an [`Expression`] AST node if the next tokens represent
    /// a binary OR expression.
    ///
    /// Otherwise, tries to parse the next token using [`parse_boolean_and_expression`].
    fn parse_boolean_or_expression(&mut self) -> Result<Expression> {
        self.parse_bin_expr(&[Token::Or], Self::parse_boolean_and_expression)
    }

    /// Returns an [`Expression`] AST node if the next tokens represent a
    /// binary AND expression.
    ///
    /// Otherwise, tries to parse the next token using [`parse_equality_expression`].
    fn parse_boolean_and_expression(&mut self) -> Result<Expression> {
        self.parse_bin_expr(&[Token::And], Self::parse_equality_expression)
    }

    fn eat_unary_op(&mut self) -> Option<UnaryOperation> {
        self.eat_any(&[Token::Not, Token::Sub]).then(|| match &self.prev_token.token {
            Token::Not => UnaryOperation::Not,
            Token::Sub => UnaryOperation::Negate,
            _ => panic!("Can't happen."),
        })
    }

    /// Eats one of binary operators matching any in `tokens`.
    fn eat_bin_op(&mut self, tokens: &[Token]) -> Option<BinaryOperation> {
        self.eat_any(tokens).then(|| match &self.prev_token.token {
            Token::Eq => BinaryOperation::Eq,
            Token::NotEq => BinaryOperation::Neq,
            Token::Lt => BinaryOperation::Lt,
            Token::LtEq => BinaryOperation::Lte,
            Token::Gt => BinaryOperation::Gt,
            Token::GtEq => BinaryOperation::Gte,
            Token::Add => BinaryOperation::Add,
            Token::Sub => BinaryOperation::Sub,
            Token::Mul => BinaryOperation::Mul,
            Token::Div => BinaryOperation::Div,
            Token::Rem => BinaryOperation::Rem,
            Token::Or => BinaryOperation::Or,
            Token::And => BinaryOperation::And,
            Token::BitOr => BinaryOperation::BitwiseOr,
            Token::BitAnd => BinaryOperation::BitwiseAnd,
            Token::Pow => BinaryOperation::Pow,
            Token::Shl => BinaryOperation::Shl,
            Token::Shr => BinaryOperation::Shr,
            Token::BitXor => BinaryOperation::Xor,
            _ => unreachable!("`eat_bin_op` shouldn't produce this"),
        })
    }

    /// Returns an [`Expression`] AST node if the next tokens represent a
    /// binary relational expression: less than, less than or equals, greater than, greater than or equals.
    ///
    /// Otherwise, tries to parse the next token using [`parse_additive_expression`].
    fn parse_ordering_expression(&mut self) -> Result<Expression> {
        let mut expr = self.parse_bitwise_exclusive_or_expression()?;
        if let Some(op) = self.eat_bin_op(&[Token::Lt, Token::LtEq, Token::Gt, Token::GtEq]) {
            let right = self.parse_bitwise_exclusive_or_expression()?;
            expr = Self::bin_expr(self.node_builder, expr, right, op);
        }
        Ok(expr)
    }

    /// Returns an [`Expression`] AST node if the next tokens represent a
    /// binary equals or not equals expression.
    ///
    /// Otherwise, tries to parse the next token using [`parse_ordering_expression`].
    fn parse_equality_expression(&mut self) -> Result<Expression> {
        let mut expr = self.parse_ordering_expression()?;
        if let Some(op) = self.eat_bin_op(&[Token::Eq, Token::NotEq]) {
            let right = self.parse_ordering_expression()?;
            expr = Self::bin_expr(self.node_builder, expr, right, op);
        }
        Ok(expr)
    }

    /// Returns an [`Expression`] AST node if the next tokens represent a
    /// bitwise exclusive or expression.
    ///
    /// Otherwise, tries to parse the next token using [`parse_bitwise_inclusive_or_expression`].
    fn parse_bitwise_exclusive_or_expression(&mut self) -> Result<Expression> {
        self.parse_bin_expr(&[Token::BitXor], Self::parse_bitwise_inclusive_or_expression)
    }

    /// Returns an [`Expression`] AST node if the next tokens represent a
    /// bitwise inclusive or expression.
    ///
    /// Otherwise, tries to parse the next token using [`parse_bitwise_and_expression`].
    fn parse_bitwise_inclusive_or_expression(&mut self) -> Result<Expression> {
        self.parse_bin_expr(&[Token::BitOr], Self::parse_bitwise_and_expression)
    }

    /// Returns an [`Expression`] AST node if the next tokens represent a
    /// bitwise and expression.
    ///
    /// Otherwise, tries to parse the next token using [`parse_shift_expression`].
    fn parse_bitwise_and_expression(&mut self) -> Result<Expression> {
        self.parse_bin_expr(&[Token::BitAnd], Self::parse_shift_expression)
    }

    /// Returns an [`Expression`] AST node if the next tokens represent a
    /// shift left or a shift right expression.
    ///
    /// Otherwise, tries to parse the next token using [`parse_additive_expression`].
    fn parse_shift_expression(&mut self) -> Result<Expression> {
        self.parse_bin_expr(&[Token::Shl, Token::Shr], Self::parse_additive_expression)
    }

    /// Returns an [`Expression`] AST node if the next tokens represent a
    /// binary addition or subtraction expression.
    ///
    /// Otherwise, tries to parse the next token using [`parse_mul_div_pow_expression`].
    fn parse_additive_expression(&mut self) -> Result<Expression> {
        self.parse_bin_expr(&[Token::Add, Token::Sub], Self::parse_multiplicative_expression)
    }

    /// Returns an [`Expression`] AST node if the next tokens represent a
    /// binary multiplication, division, or a remainder expression.
    ///
    /// Otherwise, tries to parse the next token using [`parse_exponential_expression`].
    fn parse_multiplicative_expression(&mut self) -> Result<Expression> {
        self.parse_bin_expr(&[Token::Mul, Token::Div, Token::Rem], Self::parse_exponential_expression)
    }

    /// Returns an [`Expression`] AST node if the next tokens represent a
    /// binary exponentiation expression.
    ///
    /// Otherwise, tries to parse the next token using [`parse_cast_expression`].
    fn parse_exponential_expression(&mut self) -> Result<Expression> {
        self.parse_bin_expr(&[Token::Pow], Self::parse_cast_expression)
    }

    /// Returns an [`Expression`] AST node if the next tokens represent a
    /// cast expression.
    ///
    /// Otherwise, tries to parse the next token using [`parse_unary_expression`].
    fn parse_cast_expression(&mut self) -> Result<Expression> {
        let mut expr = self.parse_unary_expression()?;
        if self.eat(&Token::As) {
            let (type_, end_span) = self.parse_primitive_type()?;
            let span = expr.span() + end_span;
            expr = Expression::Cast(CastExpression {
                expression: Box::new(expr),
                type_,
                span,
                id: self.node_builder.next_id(),
            });
        }

        Ok(expr)
    }

    /// Returns an [`Expression`] AST node if the next tokens represent a
    /// unary not, negate, or bitwise not expression.
    ///
    /// Otherwise, tries to parse the next token using [`parse_postfix_expression`].
    pub(super) fn parse_unary_expression(&mut self) -> Result<Expression> {
        let token_span = self.token.span;

        let Some(op) = self.eat_unary_op() else {
            return self.parse_postfix_expression();
        };

        let mut inner = self.parse_unary_expression()?;

        // Try to construct a negative literal.
        if let UnaryOperation::Negate = op {
            use Literal::*;
            if let Expression::Literal(
                Integer(_, string, span, _) | Field(string, span, _) | Group(string, span, _) | Scalar(string, span, _),
            ) = &mut inner
            {
                if !string.starts_with('-') {
                    // The operation was a negation and the literal was not already negative, so fold it in.
                    string.insert(0, '-');
                    *span = token_span + *span;
                    return Ok(inner);
                }
            }
        }

        Ok(Expression::Unary(UnaryExpression {
            span: token_span + inner.span(),
            op,
            receiver: Box::new(inner),
            id: self.node_builder.next_id(),
        }))
    }

    // TODO: Parse method call expressions directly and later put them into a canonical form.
    /// Returns an [`Expression`] AST node if the next tokens represent a
    /// method call expression.
    fn parse_method_call_expression(&mut self, receiver: Expression, method: Identifier) -> Result<Expression> {
        // Parse the argument list.
        let (mut args, _, span) = self.parse_expr_tuple()?;
        let span = receiver.span() + span;

        if let (true, Some(op)) = (args.is_empty(), UnaryOperation::from_symbol(method.name)) {
            // Found an unary operator and the argument list is empty.
            Ok(Expression::Unary(UnaryExpression {
                span,
                op,
                receiver: Box::new(receiver),
                id: self.node_builder.next_id(),
            }))
        } else if let (1, Some(op)) = (args.len(), BinaryOperation::from_symbol(method.name)) {
            // Found a binary operator and the argument list contains a single argument.
            Ok(Expression::Binary(BinaryExpression {
                span,
                op,
                left: Box::new(receiver),
                right: Box::new(args.swap_remove(0)),
                id: self.node_builder.next_id(),
            }))
        } else if let (2, Some(CoreFunction::SignatureVerify)) =
            (args.len(), CoreFunction::from_symbols(sym::signature, method.name))
        {
            Ok(Expression::Access(AccessExpression::AssociatedFunction(AssociatedFunction {
                variant: Identifier::new(sym::signature, self.node_builder.next_id()),
                name: method,
                arguments: {
                    let mut arguments = vec![receiver];
                    arguments.extend(args);
                    arguments
                },
                span,
                id: self.node_builder.next_id(),
            })))
        } else if let (0, Some(CoreFunction::FutureAwait)) =
            (args.len(), CoreFunction::from_symbols(sym::Future, method.name))
        {
            Ok(Expression::Access(AccessExpression::AssociatedFunction(AssociatedFunction {
                variant: Identifier::new(sym::Future, self.node_builder.next_id()),
                name: method,
                arguments: vec![receiver],
                span,
                id: self.node_builder.next_id(),
            })))
        } else {
            // Attempt to parse the method call as a mapping operation.
            match (args.len(), CoreFunction::from_symbols(sym::Mapping, method.name)) {
                (1, Some(CoreFunction::MappingGet))
                | (2, Some(CoreFunction::MappingGetOrUse))
                | (2, Some(CoreFunction::MappingSet))
                | (1, Some(CoreFunction::MappingRemove))
                | (1, Some(CoreFunction::MappingContains)) => {
                    // Found an instance of `<mapping>.get`, `<mapping>.get_or_use`, `<mapping>.set`, `<mapping>.remove`, or `<mapping>.contains`.
                    Ok(Expression::Access(AccessExpression::AssociatedFunction(AssociatedFunction {
                        variant: Identifier::new(sym::Mapping, self.node_builder.next_id()),
                        name: method,
                        arguments: {
                            let mut arguments = vec![receiver];
                            arguments.extend(args);
                            arguments
                        },
                        span,
                        id: self.node_builder.next_id(),
                    })))
                }
                _ => {
                    // Either an invalid unary/binary operator, or more arguments given.
                    self.emit_err(ParserError::invalid_method_call(receiver, method, args.len(), span));
                    Ok(Expression::Err(ErrExpression { span, id: self.node_builder.next_id() }))
                }
            }
        }
    }

    /// Returns an [`Expression`] AST node if the next tokens represent a
    /// static access expression.
    fn parse_associated_access_expression(&mut self, module_name: Expression) -> Result<Expression> {
        // Ensure that the preceding expression is an identifier (a named type).
        let variant = if let Expression::Identifier(ident) = module_name {
            ident
        } else {
            return Err(ParserError::invalid_associated_access(&module_name, module_name.span()).into());
        };

        // Parse the constant or function name.
        let member_name = self.expect_identifier()?;

        // Check if there are arguments.
        Ok(Expression::Access(if self.check(&Token::LeftParen) {
            // Parse the arguments
            let (args, _, end) = self.parse_expr_tuple()?;

            // Return the associated function.
            AccessExpression::AssociatedFunction(AssociatedFunction {
                span: module_name.span() + end,
                variant,
                name: member_name,
                arguments: args,
                id: self.node_builder.next_id(),
            })
        } else {
            // Return the associated constant.
            AccessExpression::AssociatedConstant(AssociatedConstant {
                span: module_name.span() + member_name.span(),
                ty: Type::Identifier(variant),
                name: member_name,
                id: self.node_builder.next_id(),
            })
        }))
    }

    /// Parses a tuple of `Expression` AST nodes.
    pub(crate) fn parse_expr_tuple(&mut self) -> Result<(Vec<Expression>, bool, Span)> {
        self.parse_paren_comma_list(|p| p.parse_expression().map(Some))
    }

    /// Parses an external function call `credits.aleo/transfer()` or locator `token.aleo/accounts`.
    ///
    /// In the ABNF grammar,
    /// an external function call is one of the two kinds of free function calls,
    /// namely the one that uses a locator to designate the function;
    /// a locator is a kind of primary expression.
    fn parse_external_resource(&mut self, expr: Expression, network_span: Span) -> Result<Expression> {
        // Parse `/`.
        self.expect(&Token::Div)?;

        // Parse name.
        let name = self.expect_identifier()?;

        // Ensure the preceding expression is a (program) identifier.
        let program: Identifier = match expr {
            Expression::Identifier(identifier) => identifier,
            _ => unreachable!("Function called must be preceded by a program identifier."),
        };

        // Parsing a '{' means that user is trying to illegally define an external record.
        if self.token.token == Token::LeftCurly {
            return Err(ParserError::cannot_define_external_record(expr.span() + name.span()).into());
        }

        // If there is no parenthesis, then it is a locator.
        if self.token.token != Token::LeftParen {
            // Parse an external resource locator.
            return Ok(Expression::Locator(LocatorExpression {
                program: ProgramId {
                    name: program,
                    network: Identifier { name: sym::aleo, span: network_span, id: self.node_builder.next_id() },
                },
                name: name.name,
                span: expr.span() + name.span(),
                id: self.node_builder.next_id(),
            }));
        }

        // Parse the function call.
        let (arguments, _, span) = self.parse_paren_comma_list(|p| p.parse_expression().map(Some))?;

        Ok(Expression::Call(CallExpression {
            span: expr.span() + span,
            function: Box::new(Expression::Identifier(name)),
            program: Some(program.name),
            arguments,
            id: self.node_builder.next_id(),
        }))
    }

    /// Returns an [`Expression`] AST node if the next tokens represent an
    /// array access, struct member access, tuple access, or method call expression.
    ///
    /// Otherwise, tries to parse the next token using [`parse_primary_expression`].
    /// Note that, as mentioned in [`parse_primary_expression`],
    /// this function also completes the parsing of some primary expressions
    /// (as defined in the ABNF grammar),
    /// which [`parse_primary_expression`] only starts to parse.
    fn parse_postfix_expression(&mut self) -> Result<Expression> {
        // We don't directly parse named types and identifiers in associated constants and functions
        // here as the ABNF states. Rather, those named types and identifiers are parsed
        // as primary expressions, and combined to form associated constants and functions here.
        let mut expr = self.parse_primary_expression()?;
        loop {
            if self.eat(&Token::Dot) {
                if self.check_int() {
                    // Eat a tuple member access.
                    let (index, span) = self.eat_whole_number()?;
                    expr = Expression::Access(AccessExpression::Tuple(TupleAccess {
                        tuple: Box::new(expr),
                        index,
                        span,
                        id: self.node_builder.next_id(),
                    }))
                } else if self.eat(&Token::Leo) {
                    return Err(ParserError::only_aleo_external_calls(expr.span()).into());
                } else if self.eat(&Token::Aleo) {
                    if self.token.token == Token::Div {
                        expr = self.parse_external_resource(expr, self.prev_token.span)?;
                    } else {
                        // Parse as address literal, e.g. `hello.aleo`.
                        if !matches!(expr, Expression::Identifier(_)) {
                            self.emit_err(ParserError::unexpected(expr.to_string(), "an identifier", expr.span()))
                        }

                        expr = Expression::Literal(Literal::Address(
                            format!("{}.aleo", expr),
                            expr.span(),
                            self.node_builder.next_id(),
                        ))
                    }
                } else {
                    // Parse instances of `self.address`.
                    if let Expression::Identifier(id) = expr {
                        if id.name == sym::SelfLower && self.token.token == Token::Address {
                            let span = self.expect(&Token::Address)?;
                            // Convert `self.address` to the current program name. TODO: Move this conversion to canonicalization pass when the new pass is added.
                            // Note that the unwrap is safe as in order to get to this stage of parsing a program name must have already been parsed.
                            return Ok(Expression::Literal(Literal::Address(
                                format!("{}.aleo", self.program_name.unwrap()),
                                expr.span() + span,
                                self.node_builder.next_id(),
                            )));
                        }
                    }

                    // Parse identifier name.
                    let name = self.expect_identifier()?;

                    if self.check(&Token::LeftParen) {
                        // Eat a method call on a type
                        expr = self.parse_method_call_expression(expr, name)?
                    } else {
                        // Eat a struct member access.
                        expr = Expression::Access(AccessExpression::Member(MemberAccess {
                            span: expr.span() + name.span(),
                            inner: Box::new(expr),
                            name,
                            id: self.node_builder.next_id(),
                        }))
                    }
                }
            } else if self.eat(&Token::DoubleColon) {
                // Eat a core associated constant or core associated function call.
                expr = self.parse_associated_access_expression(expr)?;
            } else if self.eat(&Token::LeftSquare) {
                // Eat an array access.
                let index = self.parse_expression()?;
                // Eat the closing bracket.
                let span = self.expect(&Token::RightSquare)?;
                expr = Expression::Access(AccessExpression::Array(ArrayAccess {
                    span: expr.span() + span,
                    array: Box::new(expr),
                    index: Box::new(index),
                    id: self.node_builder.next_id(),
                }))
            } else if self.check(&Token::LeftParen) {
                // Check that the expression is an identifier.
                if !matches!(expr, Expression::Identifier(_)) {
                    self.emit_err(ParserError::unexpected(expr.to_string(), "an identifier", expr.span()))
                }
                // Parse a function call that's by itself.
                let (arguments, _, span) = self.parse_paren_comma_list(|p| p.parse_expression().map(Some))?;
                expr = Expression::Call(CallExpression {
                    span: expr.span() + span,
                    function: Box::new(expr),
                    program: self.program_name,
                    arguments,
                    id: self.node_builder.next_id(),
                });
            }
            // Stop parsing the postfix expression unless a dot or square bracket follows.
            if !(self.check(&Token::Dot) || self.check(&Token::LeftSquare)) {
                break;
            }
        }
        Ok(expr)
    }

    /// Returns an [`Expression`] AST node if the next tokens represent
    /// a parenthesized expression or a unit expression
    /// or a tuple initialization expression or an affine group literal.
    fn parse_tuple_expression(&mut self) -> Result<Expression> {
        let (mut elements, trailing, span) = self.parse_expr_tuple()?;

        match (elements.len(), trailing) {
            (0, _) | (1, true) => {
                // A tuple with 0 or 1 elements - emit an error since tuples must have at least two elements.
                Err(ParserError::tuple_must_have_at_least_two_elements("expression", span).into())
            }
            (1, false) => {
                // If there is one element in the tuple but no trailing comma, e.g `(foo)`, return the element.
                Ok(elements.remove(0))
            }
            _ => {
                // Otherwise, return a tuple expression.
                // Note: This is the only place where `TupleExpression` is constructed in the parser.
                Ok(Expression::Tuple(TupleExpression { elements, span, id: self.node_builder.next_id() }))
            }
        }
    }

    /// Returns an [`Expression`] AST node if the next tokens represent an array initialization expression.
    fn parse_array_expression(&mut self) -> Result<Expression> {
        let (elements, _, span) = self.parse_bracket_comma_list(|p| p.parse_expression().map(Some))?;

        match elements.is_empty() {
            // If the array expression is empty, return an error.
            true => Err(ParserError::array_must_have_at_least_one_element("expression", span).into()),
            // Otherwise, return an array expression.
            // Note: This is the only place where `ArrayExpression` is constructed in the parser.
            false => Ok(Expression::Array(ArrayExpression { elements, span, id: self.node_builder.next_id() })),
        }
    }

    fn parse_struct_member(&mut self) -> Result<StructVariableInitializer> {
        let identifier = self.expect_identifier()?;

        let (expression, span) = if self.eat(&Token::Colon) {
            // Parse individual struct variable declarations.
            let expression = self.parse_expression()?;
            let span = identifier.span + expression.span();
            (Some(expression), span)
        } else {
            (None, identifier.span)
        };

        Ok(StructVariableInitializer { identifier, expression, id: self.node_builder.next_id(), span })
    }

    /// Returns an [`Expression`] AST node if the next tokens represent a
    /// struct initialization expression.
    /// let foo = Foo { x: 1u8 };
    pub fn parse_struct_init_expression(&mut self, identifier: Identifier) -> Result<Expression> {
        let (members, _, end) =
            self.parse_list(Delimiter::Brace, Some(Token::Comma), |p| p.parse_struct_member().map(Some))?;

        Ok(Expression::Struct(StructExpression {
            span: identifier.span + end,
            name: identifier,
            members,
            id: self.node_builder.next_id(),
        }))
    }

    /// Returns an [`Expression`] AST node if the next token is a primary expression:
    /// - Literals: field, group, unsigned integer, signed integer, boolean, address, string
    /// - Aggregate type constructors: array, tuple, structs
    /// - Identifiers: variables, keywords
    ///
    /// This function only parses some of the primary expressions defined in the ABNF grammar;
    /// for the others, it parses their initial parts,
    /// leaving it to the [self.parse_postfix_expression] function to complete the parsing.
    /// For example, of the primary expression `u8::c`, this function only parses the `u8` part,
    /// leaving it to [self.parse_postfix_expression] to parse the `::c` part.
    /// So technically the expression returned by this function may not quite be
    /// an expression as defined in the ABNF grammar,
    /// but it is only a temporary expression that is combined into a larger one
    /// by [self.parse_postfix_expression], yielding an actual expression according to the grammar.
    ///
    /// Returns an expression error if the token cannot be matched.
    fn parse_primary_expression(&mut self) -> Result<Expression> {
        if let Token::LeftParen = self.token.token {
            return self.parse_tuple_expression();
        } else if let Token::LeftSquare = self.token.token {
            return self.parse_array_expression();
        }

        let SpannedToken { token, span } = self.token.clone();
        self.bump();

        Ok(match token {
            Token::Integer(value) => {
                let suffix_span = self.token.span;
                let full_span = span + suffix_span;
                let assert_no_whitespace = |x| assert_no_whitespace(span, suffix_span, &value, x);
                match self.eat_any(INT_TYPES).then_some(&self.prev_token.token) {
                    // Hex, octal, binary literal on a noninteger is an error.
                    Some(Token::Field) | Some(Token::Group) | Some(Token::Scalar)
                        if value.starts_with("0x")
                            || value.starts_with("0o")
                            || value.starts_with("0b")
                            || value.starts_with("-0x")
                            || value.starts_with("-0o")
                            || value.starts_with("-0b") =>
                    {
                        return Err(ParserError::hexbin_literal_nonintegers(span).into());
                    }
                    // Literal followed by `field`, e.g., `42field`.
                    Some(Token::Field) => {
                        assert_no_whitespace("field")?;
                        Expression::Literal(Literal::Field(value, full_span, self.node_builder.next_id()))
                    }
                    // Literal followed by `group`, e.g., `42group`.
                    Some(Token::Group) => {
                        assert_no_whitespace("group")?;
                        Expression::Literal(Literal::Group(value, full_span, self.node_builder.next_id()))
                    }
                    // Literal followed by `scalar` e.g., `42scalar`.
                    Some(Token::Scalar) => {
                        assert_no_whitespace("scalar")?;
                        Expression::Literal(Literal::Scalar(value, full_span, self.node_builder.next_id()))
                    }
                    // Literal followed by other type suffix, e.g., `42u8`.
                    Some(suffix) => {
                        assert_no_whitespace(&suffix.to_string())?;
                        let int_ty = Self::token_to_int_type(suffix).expect("unknown int type token");
                        Expression::Literal(Literal::Integer(int_ty, value, full_span, self.node_builder.next_id()))
                    }
                    None => return Err(ParserError::implicit_values_not_allowed(value, span).into()),
                }
            }
            Token::True => Expression::Literal(Literal::Boolean(true, span, self.node_builder.next_id())),
            Token::False => Expression::Literal(Literal::Boolean(false, span, self.node_builder.next_id())),
            Token::AddressLit(address_string) => {
                if address_string.parse::<Address<N>>().is_err() {
                    self.emit_err(ParserError::invalid_address_lit(&address_string, span));
                }
                Expression::Literal(Literal::Address(address_string, span, self.node_builder.next_id()))
            }
            Token::StaticString(value) => {
                Expression::Literal(Literal::String(value, span, self.node_builder.next_id()))
            }
            Token::Identifier(name) => {
                let ident = Identifier { name, span, id: self.node_builder.next_id() };
                if !self.disallow_struct_construction && self.check(&Token::LeftCurly) {
                    // Parse struct and records inits as struct expressions.
                    // Enforce struct or record type later at type checking.
                    self.parse_struct_init_expression(ident)?
                } else {
                    Expression::Identifier(ident)
                }
            }
            Token::SelfLower => {
                Expression::Identifier(Identifier { name: sym::SelfLower, span, id: self.node_builder.next_id() })
            }
            Token::Block => {
                Expression::Identifier(Identifier { name: sym::block, span, id: self.node_builder.next_id() })
            }
            Token::Future => {
                Expression::Identifier(Identifier { name: sym::Future, span, id: self.node_builder.next_id() })
            }
            Token::Network => {
                Expression::Identifier(Identifier { name: sym::network, span, id: self.node_builder.next_id() })
            }
            t if crate::type_::TYPE_TOKENS.contains(&t) => Expression::Identifier(Identifier {
                name: t.keyword_to_symbol().unwrap(),
                span,
                id: self.node_builder.next_id(),
            }),
            token => {
                return Err(ParserError::unexpected_str(token, "expression", span).into());
            }
        })
    }
}

fn assert_no_whitespace(left_span: Span, right_span: Span, left: &str, right: &str) -> Result<()> {
    if left_span.hi != right_span.lo {
        let error_span = Span::new(left_span.hi, right_span.lo); // The span between them.
        return Err(ParserError::unexpected_whitespace(left, right, error_span).into());
    }

    Ok(())
}